Ecological Engineering science: Design Principles☆

Susan Bolton , in Encyclopedia of Ecology (2nd Edition), 2019

Material recycling

Nutrient and material (re)cycling is some other major ecological principle. Cloth is conserved by the continual reuse of materials and the transfer of those materials between organic and inorganic states through biogeochemical cycles. Organic and inorganic materials cycle through the system appearing in unlike locations and forms through time. Waste disposal is seldom an effect in a operation ecosystem as the output from one system is used as input to another. Natural biogeochemical cycles mobilize, transport, and store textile in the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Producers, consumers, and decomposers transfer organic matter and nutrients amid themselves and the storage compartments. Many traditional human engineering science designs lead to the aggregating of waste materials that cannot be reused by the original process and tin contaminate other processes. Ecological engineering science designs seek to minimize waste material product and to utilize wastes (material non related to the primary function of the pattern) equally inputs for other processes. 1 example of this is using ecological processes to clean upwards waste product products such every bit using wetlands to treat wastewater or phytoremediation to clean upward soil contamination.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012409548911111X

Reuse of tire constituents in concrete

Kyriacos Neocleous , ... Kypros Pilakoutas , in Tire Waste and Recycling, 2021

Abstract

This chapter introduces the use of terminate-of-life tire-extracted materials into concrete mixtures and provides guidelines on the successful reuse of materials such as tire steel fibers and cords, tire rubber particles, and tire cloth polymer fibers in innovative concrete mixtures. Incorporation of terminate-of-life tire materials in concrete can have significant furnishings on the material properties and this chapter discusses the nigh important studied backdrop based on end-of-life tire material incorporated into the concrete mixture along with recommended dosages for optimal performance. The affiliate focuses on the evolution of steel cobweb-reinforced concrete, rubberized concrete, and steel-fiber-reinforced rubberized concrete equally well every bit textile fiber-reinforced concrete, including properties of the end-of-life tire materials used, mix pattern process guidelines, and a word on the fresh and hardened physical properties every bit modified by the incorporation of cease-of-life tire materials into concrete.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/commodity/pii/B9780128206850000028

Life cycle costing every bit a manner to include economic sustainability in the circular economic system. New perspectives from resource-intensive industries

M. Sonia Medina-Salgado , ... Fernando Due east. García-Muiña , in Circular Economy and Sustainability, 2022

i Introduction

In recent years, the theme of the circular economy (CE) has been the subject of numerous studies. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation defines CE as an economic system aimed at the reuse of materials in subsequent production cycles, minimizing waste ( MacArthur, 2013). In contrast, a linear economy model focuses on a linear process of extraction, production, consumption, and waste. The linear economy paradigm emphasizes economic objectives at the expense of the ecological and social dimensions. On the contrary, the CE paradigm consists of a closed-loop regenerative economic model aimed at reducing the bear upon of production processes (Sauvé et al., 2016). This model assumes primary importance in the current context of scarcity of resources and of increasing attention to environmental issues.

The concept of CE is strongly continued to the concept of sustainability. Some authors identify CE as the optimal solution or, in other cases, a necessary condition for a path of sustainability. Other academic papers, instead, consider CE as i among several approaches to achieve sustainable development goals (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). In guild to connect the two concepts and to define a practice of circularity as sustainable, it is non plenty to limit the analysis to a mere environmental assessment, it is essential to consider the 3 pillars of sustainability: environmental, economic, and social. Indeed, in a business context, some circular practices may have a positive ecology impact but might non be economically sustainable, reducing the competitive advantage of the company and its power to create value. The environmental sustainability assessment should therefore ever be supported past an as comprehensive economical sustainability assessment.

In society to address this issue, the life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) is one of the well-nigh widely used methodologies in sustainability evaluation (Guinée, 2016). The LCSA is an integration framework of different models that measures the performance of a product or process with respect to the triple lesser line. The LCSA combines three tools that meet the 3 pillars of sustainable development: the life cycle assessment (LCA) for the environmental impact, the life cycle costing (LCC) for the economic impact, and the social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) for the social impact (Kloepffer, 2008). LCC allows evaluation of the economic consequences of a decision on the life cycle of a product, in terms of costs, revenues, and cash flows (Bierer et al., 2015). Despite the potential of this tool, its application in manufacturing contexts is however limited due to the complexity of the analysis and the lack of consensus.

The purpose of this research is to verify, through an operational instance, the effectiveness of the LCC in assessing circularity from an economic perspective. To achieve this objective, an aggregate LCC adding model will be applied to a major tile manufacturer in the Sassuolo ceramic commune in Italy. The model will focus on half-dozen ceramic body scenarios and information technology will evaluate a specific practise of circularity: the reintroduction of fired scrap in the production process. Through this do, the human relationship betwixt circularity and economic sustainability volition be investigated and the effectiveness of the LCC as an impact assessment tool will be analyzed.

The chapter is organized every bit follows. Section 2 presents a concise literature review on the themes of CE and LCC as a tool for assessing economic sustainability. Section iii illustrates the enquiry objectives of the chapter and the methodological framework used to address them. Section 4 introduces the case study of an important ceramic tile manufacturing company in which LCC tools have been operationally applied. Department five illustrates the results obtained from the application of the LCC to the manufacturing context proposed in the previous section. Finally, Section vi offers some concluding remarks and highlights the master limitations of the research.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128198179000053

Exploring resources-service systems—Beyond product-service systems and toward configurations of circular strategies, business concern models, and actors

Fenna Blomsma , ... Geraldine Brennan , in Round Economy and Sustainability, 2022

3.ane Analytical framework (1) Resource States

Resources "menstruum" through our economies and take on different forms along the way. Equally a result, it is non always articulate when nosotros say "reuse" whether nosotros mean the reuse of materials, or whether we mean the reuse of products. Likewise, "recycling," in the vernacular sense, can embrace both a new life for materials as well equally for products (compare, for example, the apply of recycling and reuse in ( Krystofik et al., 2018 and Lazarevic and Valve, 2017), but also (Corporate Citizenship, 2014). When nosotros draw circular strategies, therefore, it is helpful to have a clear agreement of exactly what it is that cycles.

For this, in line with Blomsma and Tennant (2020), we employ "textile entropy" (Boulding, 1966) to describe the degree to which materials are distributed and diffuse or are concentrated and organized. This results in distinguishing between iii resource states. The beginning resource state is that of "particles," or elements, substances, molecules, or materials. Through the act of organizing, using technological or logistical means, (bulk) materials are created. Next, "parts" are created, covering the level of components, modules, and (sub)assemblies. This is where materials are given an intermediate level of organization: components are more than organized than materials merely are not yet sufficiently organized to exist useful on their own. Finally, components are assembled and get "products," from which end-users tin can derive value.

Post-obit the rest of the industrial life cycle in line with lifecycle thinking, we see that at the finish-of-use the former organization processes are partly reversed: products lose their grade through a temporary (partial) disassembly to permit for repair, upgrading, or remaking processes. These processes negate a product'due south limiting state. Finally, when the product reaches its cease-of-life it loses its high organization level permanently. At this point, if possible, components are "cannibalized," and the residual is either landfilled or recycled. In addition to this, round systems tin take outputs to other systems where resources continue to be used. Think of using wastes every bit inputs, or cascading components and products for alternate use. As such, many different circular strategies can be part of a unmarried system.

The journey of resources through the economy can exist visualized every bit the Resource States framework, depicted in Fig. 1. This framework captures both the different levels of system of resources, and the dynamism of their transitions as they move through the economic system.

Fig. 1

Fig. 1. Resources states framework: depicting the industrial life cycle, the flow of resources through the economy, and the different levels of organization these resource have on during this journeying.

 Paradigm: Authors.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012819817900017X

Collection Approaches

Marc J. Rogoff PhD , in Solid Waste Recycling and Processing (Second Edition), 2014

Waste Reduction and Reuse

The post-obit section provides a brief give-and-take on source reduction and reuse, including examples of how communities are encouraging residents to rethink what waste product is and to aim toward the concept of "zero waste matter." Source reduction and reuse involves reeducating municipal staff and residents with the goal of optimizing, to the fullest extent possible, the reduction of "waste" materials at the source or the productive reuse of those materials we now consider equally waste.

Waste material Reduction

Activities and practices that reduce the amount of wastes that are created are normally classified by solid waste matter professionals every bit "waste matter reduction." Waste reduction differs from the other two waste diversion techniques (recycling and composting) because the other methods deal with wastes later on the wastes have been generated.

Waste material reduction is the highest priority for solid waste product direction according to the solid waste hierarchy in the United states and is preferred over recycling and composting considering the social, ecology, and economic costs are typically lower for waste reduction [1]. All three methods avoid the price of disposing the diverted materials every bit garbage, but recycling and composting ofttimes require pregnant additional expenses for collecting and processing the materials. Importantly, efforts to reduce and reuse waste product translate directly into price savings as the disposal tonnage and associated costs are reduced. Collection costs tin can also potentially be reduced.

Source reduction is dependent on several factors including:

•

Changing the usage and purchasing habits of residents and the community.

•

Changes that businesses undertake voluntarily to reduce the amount of potential waste material associated with products.

•

Increasing internal reuse of materials, donations, or exchange of erstwhile for new items.

These ideas are discussed further in the post-obit sections.

Extended Producer Responsibility

Briefly, extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a full general policy approach which aims to shift the price of managing consumer packaging from local solid waste agencies to those manufacturers who are producing these products. Those promoting EPR assert 4 major advantages for EPR as a preferred policy approach for end-of-life management for packaging and printed paper [2]:

•

EPR causes producers to change packaging blueprint and selection, leading to increased recyclability and/or less packaging employ.

•

EPR provides boosted funds for recycling programs, resulting in higher recycling rates.

•

EPR improves recycling program efficiency, leading to less cost, which provides a benefit to society.

•

EPR results in a fairer system of waste product direction in which private consumers pay the cost of their own consumption, rather than general taxpayers.

In the United states of america, more 70 producer responsibility laws have been pro-mulgated in 32 states including 10 categories of consumer products such every bit automobile batteries, mobile phones, pigment, pesticide containers, carpeting, electronics, thermostats, and fluorescent lamps [3]. In recent years, there has been a rising tide of states which have passed e-waste material EPRs equally a result of the rapid replacement of these products. Several states have enacted landfill bans which have had an increasing positive affect of production recycling. However, equally of this engagement, no state has enacted an EPR law of programs extending to packaging or printed paper.

Every bit a effect of failed voluntary packaging take-back programs in the Europe, public policies were instituted to require manufacturers to be responsible for these materials. In 1994, the European union enacted the Packaging Waste material Directive (94/62/EC) requiring its member states to develop regulations on the prevention, reuse, and recycling of packaging waste. These regulations vary from country to country, just about countries mandate that manufacturers pay some or all of the costs of packaging collection and recycling in the form of producer financing, shared costs, tradable credits, or packaging taxes [two]. Many countries in Northern Europe (Austria and German) accept decided to develop collection programs for packaging completely separate from solid waste material. Shared systems, which split or share municipal authority with manufacturers, are typical of programs existing in Southern Europe [four].

Figure iii.1 shows packaging recycling rates in European countries as of 2009. The data evidence that 17 countries target of the Packaging Waste Directive (2004/12/EC) is to recycle at least 55% of packaging waste generated, and two countries missed the 2001 target to recycle at least 25%. The highest performing programs in recent years include Denmark (84%), Belgium (79%), The Netherlands (72%), Germany (71%), and Austria (70%) [4].

Effigy 3.i. Packaging recycling and target rates in Eu countries

 [4].

EPR legislation is in existence in all of Canada's 10 provinces, with four (Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba, and British Columbia) having programs in place. Again, these programs resulted from similar failures of voluntary take-dorsum programs. Ontario and Quebec require manufacturers to pay 50% of the program costs, Manitoba 80%, and British Columbia 100%. In addition, all provinces take enacted deposit systems for beer containers, with 8 provinces having like eolith laws for soft drink containers.

Product Stewardship

Product stewardship is a voluntary initiative aimed at restructuring the way manufacturers design and marketplace products then that they optimize recycling of materials, minimize packaging, and actually pattern their products in a way that volition enable complete recycling of the used product in lieu of disposing the used production. It is substantially a "cradle to cradle" strategy instead of a "cradle to grave" approach.

The Product Stewardship Plant (PSI) is a United states, nonprofit membership-based organisation, located in Boston. PSI works with country and local regime agencies to partner with manufacturers, retailers, environmental groups, federal agencies, and other key stakeholders to reduce the wellness and environmental impacts of consumer products. PSI takes a unique product stewardship approach to solve waste management problems by encouraging production design changes and mediating stakeholder dialogues. Several states have or are considering initiatives and laws that would encourage or require manufacturers to improve their product designs in this manner.

Economical prosperity has increased per capita spending over the past several years and increased the need for local governments to provide expanded recycling and disposal programs. Product stewardship is a concept designed to alleviate the burden on local governments of stop-of-life product management. Product stewardship is a product-centered approach that emphasizes a shared responsibility for reducing the environmental impacts of products. This approach calls on the various waste product generators to aid minimize their wastes [3]:

•

Manufacturers: To reduce use of toxic substances, to blueprint for durability, reuse, and recyclability, and to take increasing responsibility for the cease-of-life management of products they produce.

•

Retailers: To use product providers who offering greater ecology performance, to educate consumers on environmentally preferable products, and to enable consumers to return products for recycling.

•

Consumers: To make responsible buying choices that consider environmental impacts, to purchase and use products efficiently, and to recycle the products they no longer need.

•

Government: To launch cooperative efforts with industry, to use marketplace leverage through purchasing programs for development of products with stronger environmental attributes, and to develop product stewardship legislation for selected products.

The principles of product stewardship recommend that the function of government is to provide leadership in promoting the practices of production stewardship through procurement and marketplace development. Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) is a practise that tin can be used to fulfill this office. EPP involves purchasing products or services that have reduced negative effects on human wellness and the environs when compared with competing products or services that serve the aforementioned purpose. They include products that have recycled content, reduce waste, apply less energy, are less toxic, and are more durable.

Table three.ane provides details on a few examples of programs undertaken by North American producers of consumer packaged goods.

Table 3.ane. Illustrative Voluntary Product Stewardship Programs

Company or Organization Program
Coca-Cola Visitor Municipal grants for beverage collection bins. Recycling education
Pepsi Cola Company Dream Machine Initiative to collect beverage containers at abroad from home locations (bins and kiosks)
Reduce weight of Aquafina brand plastic canteen
Target Stores Store recycling bins for cans, glass containers, plastic bottles, and plastic bags
British Columbia Dairy Council Deposit render locations for dairy containers
Publix Grocery Store recycling bins for cans, glass containers, plastic bottles and plastic bags
Best Buy and Staples Store recycling bins for toner cartridges, e-waste, and cell phones
Walmart Pressed suppliers like Proctor & Risk to reduce packaging
Proctor and Chance Increased concentration of Tide laundry detergent to sell in smaller packages
Zephyhills Water Redesigned water bottles for reduced size of cap and plastic in bottle

Local, land, and federal regime agencies can and practise utilize their tremendous purchasing power to influence the products that manufacturers bring to the marketplace. In the last decade or so, nearly efforts have focused on encouraging procurement of products made from recycled content. The goal of these procurement programs is to create viable, long-term markets for recovered materials. The EPA has developed a listing of designated products and associated recycled content recommendations for federal agencies to utilize when making purchases. These are known equally Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines [5].

To date, EPA has developed more 60 guidelines that fall into the full general categories of structure products, landscaping products, nonpaper role products, paper and newspaper products, park and recreation products, transportation products, vehicular products, and miscellaneous products [5]. For example, federal agencies are instructed to buy printing or writing paper that contains at least 30% postconsumer recycled content.

Zero Waste Initiatives

Many municipalities accept investigated and taken on the concept of "Zero Waste." This is currently the nearly comprehensive all-around mode of looking at the concept of source reduction or waste reduction, and at that place are many sources of information and examples of how a solid waste agency could consider adopting a goal of this blazon, for advancing waste matter reduction. Information technology is important to annotation that "Zero Waste product" does not mean that all waste material materials will disappear, merely that, to the maximum extent possible, source reduction, recycling, and waste matter diversion will take removed all materials that can exist utilized in some mode. Instead of seeing used materials every bit garbage in need of disposal, discards are seen as potentially valuable resources. Zero Waste is a "whole arrangement" arroyo to resources management that maximizes recycling, minimizes waste, reduces consumption, and ensures that products are reused.

Reuse Programs

Bandy shops and/or austerity stores provide a good venue for promoting the reuse of household items. Many communities take informal reuse centers located at their waste drove/drop-off centers, some of which are operated past volunteers. Promoting the reuse of building materials is also prevalent in communities looking for ways to divert materials from disposal. Some other reuse avenue becoming more popular is the use of web site exchanges, such equally the FreeCycle Network and Craigslist.

Customs Cooperatives and Exchanges

Many communities are initiating cooperatives or exchanges for specific products or interests—such equally bicycles or books—in order to facilitate knowledge well-nigh a product or subject, aid in repairs, and generally promoting a sense of sustainability. An example of customs cooperatives and exchanges is the Swap Shop operated by the Center for Abuse and Rape Emergencies (C.A.R.E.) in Charlotte Canton, Florida (Figure iii.2). Projection ReUse is a customs effort to improve the quality of life in Charlotte County, Florida. C.A.R.East. Project ReUse is a collaborative project with the Charlotte Canton Environmental and Extension Services to keep usable items out of the local landfill, and at the same time, augment funding to assistance victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and other violent crimes. There are two ReUse stores in the canton both colocated with the Canton'southward transfer stations used for collecting recyclables. Participants can drop off usable items, such equally dress, furniture, or kitchen supplies free of accuse at the C.A.R.E. stores.

Figure 3.2. Charlotte Canton's C.A.R.Eastward. store.

 (Roger Lescrynski)

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455731923000038

Armed forces Solid and Chancy Wastes—Assessment of Issues at Military machine Facilities and Base Camps

Victor F. Medina , Scott A. Waisner , in Waste, 2011

2.4 Remediation

Soil and groundwater remediation projects have a large impact on the amount of hazardous waste matter generated by a facility. Increasingly, facilities are investigating methods to minimize wastes from remediation projects. In 2010, Wrobel and Gross [15] listed several approaches, including comprehensive sampling, to allow for more than refined separation and classification of excavated soil and other cloth as hazardous or nonhazardous, surgical excavation to allow for less hazardous waste generation, the utilize of removed copse every bit fuel instead of landfilling, segregation of metallic materials for recycling, and beneficial reuse of materials on post whenever possible, such equally reusing excavated soil for on-site grading and backfill. The application of these approaches to a big soil remediation projection at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds resulted in a reduction of 1700 yd3 (1300 chiliad3) of total waste material generated, a 700 yd3 (536 chiliadthree) reduction of hazardous waste produced, a saving of 75 copse from removal, heating free energy equivalent to eight homes for one year produced from the use of forest from excavated copse for fuel, 15,000 lbs (6.8 t where t refers to metric tonne) of aluminum recycled, and the recycling of 14 × 103 tons (12 × ten3 t) of excavated soil equally clean make full.

The post-obit instance studies of Joint Base Lewis-McCord and the Pictanny Armory illustrate the solid and hazardous waste material generation at two unlike types of military facilities.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B9780123814753100257

Achieving ecology sustainability with ecodesign practices and tools for new product development

Daniel Jugend , ... Paulo Augusto Cauchick-Miguel , in Innovation Strategies in Environmental Science, 2020

two Ecodesign and new production development

Nigh companies that aim to have a robust NPD usually adopt an organizational structure for the business organisation process, which is typically divided into stages combined with decision points, called gates (technical and managerial). Actual product evolution occurs in stages whereas gates assess the progress of projects with regard to various performance measures for their continuity (Cooper, 2014). The procedure may vary in terms of the number of stages and level of details, depending on the type of product, degree of innovation, and product complexity, amongst other issues (Clark and Fujimoto, 1991).

Structuring and managing product development to reach effective results is non a unproblematic task, because product development is commonly interdisciplinary and multifunctional and should be conducted in an integrated mode. Moreover, it is relevant to consider environmental issues in this process. NPD processes take evolved to consider and reduce the environmental impacts of the product during its life bicycle, every bit discussed in this section.

In the past two decades, NPD processes take addressed other NPD-related concerns including environmental issues, such as the introduction of ecodesign strategies and other best practices such as product service systems (PSS) and the round economy, to integrate environmental concerns into the NPD. Therefore, more recent NPD processes take been interested in the ecology bear upon of products in the last stages of the process (the terminate of the pipe, e.k., the destination of products and packaging at the end of their life, less consumption of materials, reuse of materials through remanufacturing, and recycling and reuse strategies). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) besides adult a standard to guide companies in integrating environmental aspects into NPD: ISO/TR 14062 (2002). Some publications ( Almeida et al., 2010; Dangelico and Pujari, 2010) have highlighted the importance of identifying ways in which companies may utilise environmental sustainability practices in new production development projects. In this sense, the piece of work of González-Benito and González-Benito (2005) identified the following set of principles that should be observed to develop environmentally sustainable products:

(i)

replacement of polluting and hazardous materials;

(2)

development of projects that focus non only on reducing resource consumption just also on diminishing waste generation during the production and distribution stages of products to consumers;

(iii)

product blueprint aimed at reducing the consumption of resources and generation of waste matter during the use of products past consumers; and

(iv)

product evolution focusing on dismantling, reuse, and recycling.

Nevertheless, the decision to develop environmentally sustainable products is not piece of cake. Although many consumers wish the products to be environmentally sustainable, few are prepared to pay for environmentally sustainable products (Luttropp and Lagerstedt, 2006). Luchs et al., (2012) also highlighted the trade-offs that many companies face in the development of environmentally sustainable products, production costs, final prices, and functions the product can perform in addition to its ecology impact.

Ecodesign aims to support companies and designers in developing eco-efficient products past integrating ecology requirements into the initial phases of the NPD process while refraining from negatively affecting the traditional, commercial characteristics of the products, such as design, sales price, and reliability, among others. Ecodesign is likewise about designing and creating products in a greener way, adopting cleaner technologies, and preventing the generation of waste.

Ecodesign has emerged with an environmental sustainability dimension considering its chief purpose is to reduce ecology impacts in activities within the scope of NPD and the product life cycle. In the context of NPD and environmental management, inquiry into ecodesign intensified in the late 1990s with the emergence of concepts such as product life-cycle management and life-cycle assessment (LCA) (Joshi, 1999). The term originated in the U.s.a. in the electronics sector when the industry started to pay more attention to the impact of its products along the NPD process. The sector sought to improve the employ of resources, aiming to reduce waste product and produce products that were less aggressive to the environment. Another reason was related to client interest: in particular, the search for green products. From that time, increasing market place demand and legislation have pushed companies from various industrial sectors all over the world toward green and eco-innovation practices (Bocken et al., 2014; Dalhammar, 2016). Whereas eco-innovation is concerned with environmental innovations for the development of new ideas, behavior, products, and processes in the technological, organizational, social, and institutional dimensions (Rennings, 2000), ecodesign focuses on the NPD procedure.

In full general, ecodesign tin exist divers equally the consideration and application of environmental aspects in the NPD process (Karlsson and Luttropp, 2006). The main purpose of ecodesign is to design products considering the minimization of their environmental bear on during the life cycle and also to reduce the consumption of natural resources (Karlsson and Luttropp, 2006). Thus, information technology is a relevant concept for an organization'southward management of environmental factors because information technology focuses on integrating environmental aspects throughout the product's life cycle.

In a product project based on ecodesign, quality and customer satisfaction demands must be considered in an integrated manner with the ecology requirements. This is to select solutions according to their environmental impact during the product life cycle: raw material extraction, manufacturing, packaging, use, recycling, reuse, and cease-of-life. This should occur considering a balance between the product's functionalities and environmental requirements (Luttropp and Lagerstedt, 2006). Fig. vi.ane illustrates the stages of product life cycle in companies that pattern products based on ecodesign practices. Such firms are concerned with ecology problems from the concept of products until the end-of-life (Luiz et al., 2016).

Figure six.1. Product life cycle finish ecodesign.

As can be seen in Fig. 6.one, reuse aims for new uses for previously discarded products and components. This is to increase the life of these products and components. Because these products have already been discarded and will exist reused, it is important for the production to be projected to facilitate disassembly (design for disassembly). Reusing, refurbishing, remanufacturing, and recycling depend on the product being easily dismantled. Therefore, a modular arroyo toward product blueprint is as well of paramount importance when considering disassembly, for instance.

Furthermore, the projection of interchangeable parts and components and the project for new uses besides include selecting materials. Remanufacturing is an industrial process applied to the manufacture of other products, by employing materials previously used in other products. Like reuse, information technology is relevant that logistics planning of the production exists and its transport to places for the remanufacture is facilitated. To optimize remanufacturing, in add-on to planning the logistics issue throughout the use and disposal of the product, designers should likewise focus on production designs that facilitate the removal, replacement, and interchangeability of product parts and components. The designer of new products must also consider the energy consumption of remanufacturing. Whereas recycling promotes material recovery without retaining any pattern features or specifications, remanufacturing retains the identity of the production and aims to refurbish the production back to a new condition through disassembly and replacement operations. This is in line with the life cycle extension requirements suggested by the trend of the circular economic system.

Recycling separates the product into its basic components by melting, fusing, and/or reprocessing them into new forms before reuse. Co-ordinate to Manzini and Vezzoli (2016), although it is important to blueprint for recycling, designers should consider the entire product life bicycle. Later on all, the recycling process does not always generate an ecology gain considering the combustion of plastics, coal, and paper produces smoke and waste. The use of materials such equally copper, nickel, aluminum, and steel, for example, facilitate recycling (Manzini and Vezzoli, 2016). The ideal in terms of resources consumption would entail a reduction in the industry of new products. Even so, this normally does not reflect the realities of the current economic organization of many companies and consumers. Therefore, information technology is recommended to use recycled materials instead of virgin raw materials every bit well every bit design durable and lightweight products and use less harmful substances, (Ghisellini et al., 2016).

Reduction is aimed at product design that reduces the consumption of materials and energy, whether in the extraction of raw materials from nature or throughout the life bike of the product, in activities such as use and transportation in distribution and disposal. Other relevant alternatives for this purpose can exist the design of products for commonage use, the choice of product processes with lower energy and h2o consumption, and the selection of materials with a depression environmental bear on. One strategy to mitigate the increase in material consumption and its consequent environmental impacts involves offering production service systems through servitization. By offering an integrated bundle of products and services, mainly digital ones instead of traditional products, dematerialization can take place. The focus then is no longer on the physical or material buying of the product merely rather its shared use. Data technologies and mobile apps can be useful in operationalizing this trend.

When choosing materials that will brand upwards the production, companies should besides avoid those that are considered toxic, such equally asbestos, heavy metals, and lead. In this sense, the recommendation is to blueprint products using renewable and biodegradable materials. The maintenance project aims to plan the facilitation of product repair to increase its life cycle and avoid environmental (and also economic) impacts resulting from the repair. Facilitating the replacement of components and providing expert operating instructions may be desirable practices for designing for maintenance.

Luiz et al. (2016), who systematized publications on ecodesign through bibliometric assay, observed that the research on the subject is mainly full-bodied in Europe. Exterior this continent, research is distributed mainly in Brazil, China, Japan, and the United states. Those authors further noted that in addition to the focus on NPD and product pattern, ecodesign research tends to focus on issues such as sustainable evolution, environmental regulation, and industry regulations, likewise as construction and architecture. Finally, the work showed relevant relations between ecodesign and the LCA, in add-on to subjects on ecology legislation and industry regulation.

Read full affiliate

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B978012817382400006X

Rural and Developing Country Solutions

Salah Yard. El Haggar , in Environmental Solutions, 2005

Waste matter Management

The selection of a combination of techniques, technologies, and management programs to accomplish waste material management objectives is called integrated solid waste direction (ISWM). The hierarchy of actions to implement ISWM is reduction, reuse, recycle, handling, and last disposal (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993).

Finding new sources of raw material are becoming plush and difficult. Concurrently, the cost of safe disposal of waste is escalating exponentially and even locating waste disposal sites are becoming more than hard. As a result, a new hierarchy for waste material management to approach full utilization of waste is a must, which starts from reduction at the source, reuse, recycle and fractional handling for possible cloth recovery using cleaner product technologies (El Haggar 2002).

Reuse of materials involves extended use of a product (retrading auto tires) or utilize of a product for other purposes (tin can cans for holding nails, soft drink bottles for property water in refrigerators, etc.). Reusing the product does not render the textile to the industry for manufacturing. While, recycling of material involves manufacturing of other products with less quality. Quality can be adjusted by additives. Recovery differs from recycling in that waste product is collected equally mixed refuse, and then diverse processing steps remove the materials. Separating oil from waste water effluent of oil and soap industry by gravity oil separator (GOS) is material recovery from waste. This material is then sold back to less quality soap manufacture or returned back to the industrial process. The difference between recycling and recovery, the 2 chief methods of returning waste materials to industry for manufacturing and subsequent use, is that the latter require a process to remove the textile from the waste material while the one-time does not require any processes for separation, sorting can be washed manually.

In April 1988, the U.S. EPA published the waste minimization techniques, separating waste minimization into 2 categories: source reduction and recycling, both within the plant (onsite) and outside the establish (offsite). Source reduction tin be achieved by production modification or sources command. The latter can be washed by irresolute the raw material, irresolute the technologies or through good operating practices. Information technology is obvious that waste material minimization techniques are adept business organisation for industrial sectors.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120884414500150

H2o-Quality Applied science

P. Cornel , ... S. Bieker , in Treatise on Water Scientific discipline, 2011

4.12.7.3 System Scale

The size of a arrangement plays a decisive office regarding costs of sanitation systems. Thereby, sewer and pressurized distribution grids cause a significant share in the toll of the overall system (Günthert and Reicherter, 2001). Unaccounted losses of treated loftier-quality water during distribution in pressure pipes, which can corporeality to 40–50%, also nowadays a significant cost gene and should therefore be taken into account when assessing the organization's calibration. Against the background of the reuse of textile flows (later prior handling) and therefore the need of dual pipe and sewer systems, investment and functioning costs of the grid may be ane of the limiting factors for the system size. Existing concepts such every bit DeSaR or ecosan follow this approach and focus on decentralized systems.

Withal, in (fast-growing) urban areas with high population densities, the existing pocket-size-scale, on-site solutions do not seem to be feasible. Professional performance, stringent and reliable hygiene standards and its professional monitoring, equally well as small-scale footprints are indispensable, considering of the expected condolement and because of epidemics prevention.

When referring to treatment costs, economies of calibration for treatment and performance accept to exist considered. Specific costs of large treatment plants can exist reduced considerably by introducing larger-scale systems (Günthert and Reicherter, 2001; Reicherter, 2003).

Regarding intra-urban areas with loftier population density, from the economic point of view one has to balance large-scale plants generating economies of scale (in the plant sector) and modest-sized, meaty systems with short piping and sewer lengths. This is in accord with the ecological point of view: optimum resources conservation requires a minimum size of technical plants, yet, at the aforementioned time, a compact piping and sewer system in society to minimize the energy input. From the sociocultural signal of view, the focus is on hygienic harmlessness and comfort, the latter being, viable with larger structures at lower costs.

Thus, the optimum scale for reclaimed water application infrastructure is beyond the conventional centralized systems with supply and disposal for unabridged megacities, but rather lies in an effective materials flow management that is able to comprise regional/local boundary weather. Regarding economies of calibration on the one paw and soft skills of infrastructure systems, such as flexibility, planning rubber, and degree of capacity utilization, which all favor rather smaller systems on the other hand, latest enquiry shows that the recommendable size of integrated semicentralized systems for new development areas ranges between 50   000 and 100   000 inhabitants (Bieker et al. (2010); BMBF, 2006). Anyhow, one has to comport in mind that size optima depend on local boundary conditions, treatment techniques, and on the advances in control technology.

Taking the above into consideration, it becomes articulate that a holistic approach must be chosen to fulfill the requirements of resources savings (ecological aspects), financial interests (economical aspects), and hygiene and condom needs (sociocultural aspects) in terms of sustainable water direction. At the same time, the requirements convey that at that place cannot exist a universal solution for everywhere, but the individual regional and locals circumstances and interests (including the financial bearing capacity of the region, the educational status of the people, climatic weather, traditions, fifty-fifty religious concerns, etc.) need to be considered in gild to find an adapted and locally-fitted solution (Wilderer, 2005b).

In the next section, a case report for a development area of 20   000 inhabitants in the city of Qingdao, P.R. China, is exemplified.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444531995000920

Response and Rehabilitation of Historic Monuments After the Gorkha Earthquake

Kai Weise , ... Hugo Rodrigues , in Impacts and Insights of the Gorkha Convulsion, 2018

four.9 Implementation Procedures: The Checklist

The implementation of many restoration projects has come to a standstill due to the lack of agreed-upon procedures. The standard government procedure, based on the Public Procurement Act, has clearly not been advisable for monument restoration. At that place has been a lack of coordination betwixt the various government authorities, peculiarly the Section of Archaeology, the NRA, and the local governments. Furthermore, there is niggling communication and support from relevant international agencies in the field of cultural heritage. To facilitate and help coordinate the stepwise implementation, a "Rehabilitation Check-List" has been prepared (Weise, 2016).

The first phase focuses on preparation. The checklist includes documentation, assessment, research, inventory of salvaged materials, and temporary interventions. Only once the preparations are completed to a satisfactory mode, with sufficient documentation, assessments, and research, will work continue to the next stage. The inventories of all salvaged materials from any specific monument or site would have to exist prepared and, where possible, their original location determined to let for reuse of materials where possible and advisable. Diverse temporary interventions might nonetheless exist required even after the initial assessments and response activities; and these volition be carried out in an appropriate manner, considering the bear upon on long-term rehabilitation.

The second stage focuses on design and planning. The checklist includes structural interventions, conservation, cloth (requirement and supply), artisan (requirement and availability), and implementation planning. The design and planning of interventions consider the structure too as the ornament and focus on both technical and practical considerations. The reuse of salvaged materials goes manus in hand with the required skills in traditional building crafts or use of appropriate modern applied science. The required human, material, and financial resources are to be ensured along with the phasewise work schedule, indicating disquisitional paths also every bit preparations for the implementation phase.

In one case the design and planning has been agreed upon by the respective regime, Phase 3 implementations begin. The checklist includes rituals, documentation of implementation, supervision and monitoring, handing-over procedures, too as an audit of quality and finances. This ways the procedures must follow traditions while being monitored for compliance to rehabilitation guidelines. The projects will exist handed over to the site managers along with an audit on the quality of work every bit well as finances, which volition be made public as soon as it is finalized.

The "Rehabilitation Bank check-List" will be used as role of any agreement with national and international partners to clarifying the content and schedule of projects. Should a specific party agree to carry out only sure activities on the "Rehabilitation Check-List," the agreement will be finalized simply once other partners are adamant for the remaining activities. During the implementation process, the same "Rehabilitation Bank check-Listing" will be used by the responsible national regime to monitor the progress and phasewise implementation. Each phase must exist completed to a satisfactory degree before the next phase begins. However, in that location might be sure circumstances where an intervention cannot exist designed due to lack of research, requiring the process to return to activities in earlier phases until a satisfactory issue is achieved. Phase 3 implementations volition non begin without the national authorities agreeing to the pattern, interventions, and overall implementation planning.

In Nepal, nosotros have diverse initiatives responding to the damage acquired to monuments and historic buildings past the 2015 Gorkha convulsion. Each involved authority, national and international agency, and skilful has its ain understanding of arroyo and procedure. There are additionally those who practise not seem to have whatever idea, such equally numerous contractors given the task of reconstructing temples. The lack of a mutually agreed-upon and enforced rehabilitation procedure and guideline is causing havoc in the postdisaster recovery of the culture sector. It is loftier fourth dimension for the respective government to acknowledge these circumstances, reassess the situation, and bring the culture sector rehabilitation back on track.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128128084000043